Do you have any problems in the other OS you are dual booting with (I am assuming they are on the same HDD)? That sounds a little worryingly like a hardware issue with the drive itself, especially since it came about suddenly. It sounds like the shutdown after those changes to the wallpaper was normal (in other words, you didn't have to hard power off the system), so that shouldn't have caused any problems.
My advice would be to boot the machine up with a live CD like
System Rescue CD and scanning all the partitions on the drive for filesystem errors. While this is going on, be very watchful of any error messages either from fsck or the kernel logs.
If you get errors when running from the live CD, there is a very good chance there is a hardware problem at fault, or at the very least, some serious corruption.